Household Labor, Mental Health and Job Satisfaction: Evidence from Female Domestic Workers in Pakistan

Abstract

This paper examined psychological distress, resilience, and job satisfaction among the women household workers in Pakistan with consideration of family system (joint vs. nuclear) and area of residence (urban vs. rural). A cross-sectional survey was conducted with 500 women aged 20–58 years (M = 36.4, SD = 8.2) recruited through purposive sampling in Gujrat and Sialkot. Standardized measures including the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale, Brief Resilience Scale, and Job Satisfaction Survey were administered. Results revealed that women living in joint families reported significantly lower psychological distress (M = 14.48, SD = 6.09) than those in nuclear families (M = 17.43, SD = 5.23; t = 5.77, p < .001, d = 0.52). Similarly, joint-family participants scored higher on job satisfaction (M = 89.76) compared to nuclear-family participants (M = 72.90; t = -5.98, p < .001, d = -0.54). Urban workers demonstrated lower distress (M = 14.39) but greater job satisfaction (M = 88.17) than rural workers (M = 17.37; t = 5.83, p = .022). Findings underscore that socio-cultural contexts, particularly collective family support, buffer psychological distress and enhance well-being among female household labors in Pakistan. Despite the financial advantages of urban employment, city-based workers face heightened stressors linked to exploitation and social stigma. The study highlights the urgent need for labor protections, mental health resources, and culturally informed interventions to improve the resilience and psychological well-being of this marginalized yet essential workforce.